The Strengths and Limitations of Electrical Muscle Stimulation :: Exploratory Essays Research Papers

The Strengths and Limitations of Electrical Muscle Stimulation "Buy EMS, it'll burn calories and fat away." "One hour of EMS is equal to 300 to 400 sit-ups." "You can develop 19-22 inch arms!" They're new! They're hot! But do they work? You've seen them in the backs of magazines and on TV commercials- those advertisements form electronic fitness machines that tighten abdominals and give users huge biceps while watching TV or sleeping. These devices are based on electronic muscle stimulation. What exactly is EMS, what does it do, and, other than those muscle building, fat reducing claims, what are the current uses of electronic muscle stimulation. Electronic Muscle Stimulation (EMS) is a muscle exercise concept for use in one's own home. It is an established rehabilitative concept used for treating a variety of clinical problem involving the muscle skeletal, neuromuscular (relating to both nerve and muscle tissue) , genitourinary (relating to the genital and urinary organs) , and integumentary (administered by contact with the skin) systems(Leonard). The first recorded use of EMS for medical stimulation was recorded in 1783 (Creasey). This was used to restore respiration for people who had paralyzed/collapsed chest/lung muscles. After that, many Soviet and Eastern Olympic competitors used muscle stimulators to build and produce the same bulk in muscles that only steroids had promised. Now the system has finally reached the West. Once only available to doctors and therapists, EMS is now suggested for use by anyone participating in bodybuilding, power lifting, martial arts, boxing, or anyone simply wishing to achieve their optimal athletic ability. EMS is also recommended to athletes for warming up the muscles and increasing circulation prior to a workout routine (Schmidt). The Medical Advisory Committee has allowed the use of EMS systems by athletes since the 1972 Olympics (Muscle stimulators...). Many athletes use EMS to supplement their regular workout routines, while many doctors use it to aid in the rehabilitation of muscles f ollowing injury and to ease patients chronic muscle spasms and pain (Muscle stimulators...). The concept of electrical muscle stimulation is to use technologically advanced science that uses very mild electrical current to exercise your muscles. When one performs any exercise, their brain sends a message down the spinal cord through the nerves innervating all the muscles causing them to contract. An outside electrical source stimulates the nerves to send these signals to your muscle to contract. This is achieved by passing electrical currents through electrode pads placed over a muscle.

Causes and Solutions to Pronunciation Problems

Causes and solutions to pronunciation problems12008815x , So Hee Kim Hong kong is one of the most preferred locations for international business in Asia Pacific, and is becoming more so. Naturally business English skills is becoming increasingly important. Business English skills can be categorized into three different parts. These parts are writing, presentation and communication. All are equally important, but this essay will focus more on commuicaition. To be be more specific, it will focus on pronunciation.For, when I first came to hongkong, I realized that people’s grammer and vocabulary is quiet good, but it is sometimes hard to understand them because of their pronunciation. Because relatively other aspects are quite good, I think that hong kong can increase their competitiveness in business English by focusing on this aspect. So, the following will cover the objective of the essay, the causes for the inaccurate pronunciation and the solutions. The objective is to look into how hong kong people can achieve an ‘acceptable’ pronunciation.An acceptable pronunciation is ‘ a pronunciation when other people can understand what he/she says and the speaker’s English is pleasant to listen to; in other words, the speaker is comfortably intelligible. ’ (James,2010) To be short, the pronunciation doesn’t have to be like a native speaker but just have to be understood comfortably. There are few factors that leads to the problem of pronunciation in hong kong, despite the early age the children start to learn English. One is the influence of their mother tongue. And the other is the way how pronunciation is taught in schools. Candice, 2006) There are lots of studies that proves that the first language have a profound affect on learning the second language (Carter,2001). In hong kong, their first language is Cantonese. And there are differences in phonology between Cantonese and English. First, unlike English, Cantonese is logographic. Because they learn their mother tongue in a logographic method, they might apply the same way when learning English. That is, they may learn apply visual recognition method when learning English words rather than applying the phonetic analysis method.And this can decrease the ability to link letters and phonemes, which can affect their pronunciation. Also there are differences in the languages syllable structure, sound inventory and prosodic patterns. (Catherine,2002) But the more pressing problem is the insignificant emphasis placed on pronunciation teaching. For these kinds of problems can be overcome with a good system. First, teachers should clarify the differences between English and Cantonese phonological systems.In a study, a research(Candice,2006) was conducted to students of hong kong to find out where the most frequent pronunciation errors occur and the reason behind this. The research showed that most of these problems occurred, because the students did not h ave a clear idea of the differences between the two sound systems. For example, the /l/ sound in Cantonese cannot be found in a word-final position. So most of the students in the research had a tendency to not spell out the /l/ when pronouncing ‘will’. Learning phonics in an appropriate method is also important.Phonics is teaching reading by training beginners to associate letters with their sound values. By learning phonics students will be able to read and pronounce properly. Recently in primary schools in hong kong, phonics has become a major component of the English language curriculum. But there still seems to be a lot of limitation concerning this. The most pressing problem regarding this issue, is that the knowledge base for teaching phonics is not established. So the teachers will have to work on finding a clear methodology for teaching phonics in secondary language contexts.For example, in a study the researcher suggested adopting awareness raising activities for phonics learning. (paul,2008) This means increasing student’s awareness to the general sensitivity to sound-spelling correspondence. This will increase their ability to notice and deduce the specific relationships themselves. This will lead to better performance of students in sounding out a new word from it’s spelling or spelling a word from it’s pronunciation. Also, teachers should make use of today’s technology.For example, there are so many good computer program for learning English pronunciation these days. The strong point of using computer software is that it allows student to repeatedly listen to what they want, and help them to learn at anytime, anywhere. And by motivating them to use these systems in their daily lives, they can help students develop independency in learning pronunciation. Pronunciations in English is important, in people’s daily lives and also in business society. Poor pronunciation can have a negative impression and also create prejudice against the person. saylor) So, in order to have a good communication skills in the business world, having an ‘acceptable’ pronunciation is a necessity. The main cause for pronunciation problems in hongkong can be found in the huge difference between their mother tounge and English. But by applying an effective English education system it is not a problem that could not be overcome.. As international business in increasing in hong kong, overcoming this weak point will have great effect on the nation’s competitiveness as the center for global businesses.References. 1. http://www. ehow. com/about_6636066_importance-english-pronunciation. html 2. An analysis of Hong Kong native Cantonese Form Three students’ problems in English Pronunciation. ( Chiu Kik Ling Candice,2006) 3. Teaching Phonics through Awareness-Raising Activities (Paul Sze, 2008) 4. Learning to read English among Chinese Children (Rebecca Treiman) 5. The Significance of Pr onunciation in Engilsh Language Teaching (Abbas Pourhosein Gilakjani, 2012)

Allen Lane - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 3 Words: 1026 Downloads: 4 Date added: 2017/09/15 Category Advertising Essay Did you like this example? Opportunity Evaluation Allen Lane’s decision to acquire Plas-Tek Industries (PTI) is intriguing since the business appears to be a good match with Lane’s work experience and interest. As a manufacturer, PTI has been able to create large margins and high cash flow under Harry Elson’s leadership. However, significant risks are prevalent in acquiring PTI. First, more one-third of PTI’s sales originated from five companies and it is uncertain that without Harry Elson’s personal efforts if their patronage will continue. Secondly, the bank valuation of PTI ($600K) appears inflated as the bank’s valuation is notably more than PTI’s book value ($292K), calculated with an inflated price/earnings multiple for a company with no proprietary assets and does not discount any contingent liabilities. Finally, it will be difficult for PTI to achieve long-term growth since PTI has no proprietary assets and that the company is in a mature industry in a slowing economy. Business Venture Status and Characteristics Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Allen Lane" essay for you Create order As an established manufacturing company in a mature industry, Lane will have difficulty creating new growth through manufacturing a nonproprietary product, particularly in a slowing economy. However, the management vacuum created by Elson’s death provides opportunity to create new proprietary products that can grow the company. PTI has high cash flow and annual sales with relatively low labor costs as a nonunion company with both full and part time employees. PTI created its competitive advantage in customer service, so it is important to keep key employees on to ensure that continues after Lane purchases PTI. However, Lane should make sure that he and the current part-time employees learn the job tasks and business knowledge that Bernie, Sarah and Eleanor have to ensure against a loss of intellectual capacity if one of them leaves. Additionally, PTI has demonstrated the ability to create significant cash flow under Elson’s leadership, but it is uncertain that will continue due to the customer relationship and management vacuum created by his death. Finally, PTI does have $92K of land/buildings that they can collateralize for debt financing. Management PTI had been entirely dependent on Harry Elson to manage all strategic, financial, operational and marketing decisions. However, Lane’s Lane experience in managing finances, managing operations, leading teams and making strategic decisions in the manufacturing industry are the necessary hands-on skills to lead PTI after Elson’s death. However, it is questionable if Lane has either the necessary motivation or support team to operate PTI. Having Dan Ray as a partner may be helpful due to Ray’s operations experience, but it is unclear how motivated Ray is in operating PTI. Lane will also need to rebuild existing customer relationships lost due to Elson’s death as well as build new relationships with new customers, which will take significant time and resources to accomplish. However, since this a nonunion company, Lane has the flexibility to make the necessary adjustments in personnel to fulfill the necessary strategic business needs as they occur. Risks Two main risks need to be considered with this acquisition. The first risk is the contingent liabilities arising from Elson’s compensation and accumulated earnings from PTI’s interest-earning assets. Lane should provide the bank information on the accountant’s opinion on these contingent liabilities as rationale the bank’s valuation needs to discount them from their asking price. The second risk is the structure of PTI’s current customer base as a proportion of its sales. PTI’s high concentration of sales to five customers is a cause for concern for PTI’s financial stability after an ownership transition. Lane can reduce this risk through building relationships with those customers as soon as possible and keeping key personnel like Eleanor to help maintain those relationships. At the same time, Lane should implement strategies to decrease the concentration of sales from PTI’s customer base. Financial Need According the bank, Lane needs $600K to submit a bid to acquire the PTI through a stock purchase. However, the bank’s valuation is calculated using an inflated price/earnings multiple and does not account for the contingent liabilities. The P/E multiple that the bank used in its valuation is notably higher than expected for a company that does not have a proprietary product. Applying a market-based P/E multiple of 4X, the 20% cash sale discount and a $90K discount accounting for potential tax liability regarding Elson’s compensation (alternative 1), PTI should be worth $450K. While this price is notably higher than PTI’s book value, it is more realistic than the bank’s valuation. Since Lane and partner Dan Ray personally will finance $200K of this transaction, they need $250K to complete the stock purchase. Therefore, the financial need is $275K. Debt? Considering that PTI currently has low liabilities and significant cash flow, Lane and Ray should seek debt financing. However, PTI is limited by having $92K in land/buildings and $150K in accounts receivable that it could be used as collateral. Using accounts receivables as collateral is more expensive than term loans as well as directly affects customer service, PTI’s current competitive advantage. Therefore, PTI should seek to secure $92K needed to finance this acquisition through a fixed term loan using building/land as collateral. PTI’s cash flow should be able to pay off this loan, despite its 17% to 19% interest rate, over a short time period. Additionally, PTI’s cash flow should allow the remaining $183K to be financed through a mezzanine fund despite such financing requiring a 20%-30% interest rate. Equity? Besides the $200K that Lane and Ray will use to buy PTI stock directly from the bank, the equity financing options for them are limited. PTI is in a mature industry that offers limited growth potential. Therefore, venture capital and angel investors are unlikely to see it creating the necessary high returns to merit investment. Since Lane had no close friends or family that would interested in financing that is not a viable option. However, if the bank insists that $600K be paid to acquire all PTI stock, Lane and Ray should negotiate a 3-year earnout to bridge the remaining $150K gap.

Agency And Social Context The Agency s Mission

Agency/Social Context: The proposed group fits with the agency’s mission: To empower children, youth and families with opportunities for success and independency while emphasizing their sense of cultural and self-identity. It purpose fits with the agency focus on empowering families so they can maintain together. The agency withholds a foster care and adoption department. They are very supportive towards providing the necessary services for the children under their care. Client Need(s): Some examples of issues, problems and or areas of concern that members might share in common in group intervention are: behavioral issues at home or in school, disciplining foster children, child temperament, parents coping with stress, children’s mental health, parents and children reactions to sensory information. Group Purpose: To help members identify potential sources of social support within the community while learning coping mechanisms to better manage stress and the well being of foster parents. To help members find support between other foster parents in the same situation while exchanging skills from one another. Group Composition: The group would be composed of two workers leader and co-leader to guarantee continuity of the group. The group would be composed of a maximum of 18-20 parents. The group would be closed and official by the fourth week after initial week. The group would be open to male and females active foster parents, no specific age or ethnicity. The group wouldShow MoreRelatedTime Frame1002 Words   |  5 PagesACTIVITIES | TIMEFRAME | RESOURCES NEEDED | PERSON/S RESPONSIBLE | EXPECTED OUTCOME | REMARS | * Agency orientation * Building a relationship with them through short conversation and self introduce. * Prepare a comprehensive write up of agency profile and some informative document | 1 week | Manual of the department | AFI, Agency staff Interns. | To know the history of agency.To Familiarized the client staff. | Achieved | * Conduct intake interview with the clients.Read MoreStrategic Plan With Assistance From Managance Consulting1560 Words   |  7 PagesThe Board of Directors and Staff of The ABC Service Agency developed this strategic plan with assistance from Managance Consulting. It provides The ABC Service Agency with a five-year roadmap for supports, services and organization development. The Board of Directors and staff will review progress quarterly and will review and update the plan annually as needed. This plan was developed with broad involvement and guidance from the Board of Directors and staff. The Strategic Planning Committee includedRead MoreThe At The Durham Children s Aid Society Essay1515 Words   |  7 Pagesthis practicum at the Durham Children s Aid Society (CAS), I have taken advantage of numerous learning opportunities to develop skills and enhance my social work practice. These assignments align with the goals and tasks outlined with in my Learning Agreement and relate to the organizational, community, social work, and professional contexts of practice. This summary will highlight how I have met each of these key learning outcomes. 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These include the debate about the role and effectiveness of official international assistance agencies, the body of thought on the micropolitical forces which shape the development assistance process, and the debate over the ecological limits to and sustainabiltiy of economic growth. The following sections will review the most important concepts and some of the authorsRead MoreUn Dia A La Vez Mission892 Words   |  4 PagesUn Dia a la Vezis a non-profit agency with a purpose to help immigrants and give them access to medical care, education, and skill development. Many of the immigrants experience lack of knowledge and experience of not living or working with diverse culture background making hard for them to adjust in the United States (Barret, J.A., 2011). The goal of the agency is to improve opportunities and open doors for Latinos/ Immigrants. We believe that advocating , civic engagement, and community-basedRead MoreThe Association Of Children From Low Income And Impoverished Communities1822 Words   |  8 PagesIdentify an agency with which you are familiar. Briefly summarize the vision and mission of the agency, the population it serves and how many clients workers there are in the agency. The association to benefit Children (ABC) is a social service agency in Harlem New York that serves underprivileged and at risk youth and teens. The Agency itself has three major components a daycare center, an after school program and a teen prevention/ retention program. Affecting change in the lives of childrenRead MoreStrategic Planning For A Non Profit850 Words   |  4 Pagesnon-profit that is working with low-income households to help them keep their utilities connected in times of financial hardship. The program is funded by the state and its structure and scope are constantly being debated and modified. As a result, agencies like mine often take a reactionary approach to managing their programs. However, undergoing a process of strategic planning for energy assistance can help us to align [our] priorities with changing conditions and opportunities (Berman, 2006, pRead MoreFood Stamps to SNAP Essay1030 Words   |  5 PagesThis is a program that helps people buy food for th eir families; in other words, it is a very important program to families living in poverty. It is the nation’s most important program in the fight against hunger. This program was developed in the 1960’s; it is made to improve the nutrition level and food purchasing power of people with low-income. This program is offered to people who cannot afford to buy groceries for their families, regardless of age, color, sex or religion. Food Stamps can only beRead MoreCriminal Justice System Of The United States1722 Words   |  7 Pagesjustice is the system of practices and institutions of governments directed at upholding social control, deterring and mitigating crime, or sanctioning those who violate laws with criminal penalties and rehabilitation efforts. Those accused of crime have protections against abuse of investigatory and prosecution powers. Goals In the United States, criminal justice policy has been guided by the 1967 President s Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice, which issued a ground-breaking

Paul Tillich, a Guide for Christianity within a...

Paul Tillich, a Guide for Christianity within a Pluralistic Society Introduction In this paper I will discuss the significance of Paul Tillich’s theology within our current pluralistic society. I hope to accomplish this by specifically addressing how certain concepts within his Theology, when embraced or applied, can begin to relieve western Christianity’s concern for remaining â€Å"relevant†. I will also present some of Tillich’s theological ideas concerning his Christology, characteristics of a symbol, and concept of God as a symbol. I. The Christology of Tillich: Jesus as the Christ Tillich suggests in the article â€Å"A Reinterpretation of the Doctrine of the Incarnation† that Christians do not have a purely historiographical interest in the man known as Jesus, but a thriving interest in the Christ. He elaborates by saying the reports about Jesus of Nazareth found in the gospels are the reports of Jesus as the Christ, not just a man. Tillich finds that mere historical research cannot tear down the foundation of Christianity because there is immense power in the symbol of â€Å"Christ† (a topic later discussed in the essay). Tillich, despite what many assume, consistently presented Jesus as the Christ. It is true that Tillich wrote articles with titles such as â€Å"A Reinterpretation of the Doctrine of the Incarnation† (which shocked many Protestant leaders in the late 1940’s). However, Tillich reinterpreted Doctrine in an attempt to reveal the truths that he believed were at

Exxon Mobil and Environment Free Essays

string(136) " 70 mph in Prince William Sound, weathered much of the oil, changing it into mousse and tarballs, and distributed it over a large area\." Author Login Encyclopedia of Earth Search Top of Form [pic][pic] Bottom of Form †¢ Earthportal †¢ Earthnews †¢ Encyclopedia of Earth †¢ Forum EoE Pages o Home o About the EoE o Editorial Board o International Advisory Board o FAQs o EoE for Educators o Contribute to the EoE o Support the EoE o Contact the EoE o Find Us Here o RSS o Reviews o Awards and Honors †¢ [pic] Solutions Journal [pic] Browse the EoE o Titles (A-Z) o Author o Topics o Topic Editor o Content Partners o Content Sources o eBooks o Environmental Classics o Collections †¢ [pic] †¢ [pic] †¢ [pic] Exxon Valdez oil spill Table of Contents | |1 Introduction | |2 Events leading up to the spill | |3 The behavior of the oil | |4 Countermeasures and Mitigation | |4. 1 Control of the oil spill at sea | |4. 2 Shoreline treatment | |5 Economic impacts | |6 How much oil remains? |7 Ecosystem response to the spill | |7. We will write a custom essay sample on Exxon Mobil and Environment or any similar topic only for you Order Now 1 Acute Mortality | |7. 2 Long-term impacts | |7. 3 State of recovery | |8 Legal responsibility of ExxonMobil | |8. 1 Criminal Settlement | |8. 1. 1 Plea Agreement | |8. 1. Criminal Restitution | |8. 2 Civil Settlement | |9 The response of ExxonMobil | |10 Lessons learned from the spill | |11 Further Reading | | | |[pic] | [pic] Contributing Author: Cutler J. Cleveland (other articles) Content Source: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (other articles) Article Topics: Pollution and Energy This article has been reviewed and approved by the following Topic Editor: Peter Saundry (other articles) Last Updated: August 26, 2008 [pic] Introduction On March 24, 1989, the tanker Exxon Valdez, en route from Valdez, Alaska to Los Angeles, California, ran aground on Bligh Reef in Prince William Sound, Alaska. The vessel was traveling outside normal shipping lanes in an attempt to avoid ice. Within six hours of the grounding, the Exxon Valdez spilled approximately 10. 9 million gallons of its 53 million gallon cargo of Prudhoe Bay crude oil. Eight of the eleven tanks on board were damaged. The oil would eventually impact over 1,100 miles of non-continuous coastline in Alaska, making the Exxon Valdez the largest oil spill to date in U. S. waters. The response to the Exxon Valdez involved more personnel and equipment over a longer period of time than did any other spill in U. S. history. Logistical problems in providing fuel, meals, berthing, response equipment, waste management and other resources were one of the largest challenges to response management. At the height of the response, more than 11,000 personnel, 1,400 vessels and 85 aircraft were involved in the cleanup. [pic] [pic] The Exxon Valdez aground on Bligh Reef. (Source: NOAA) Shoreline cleanup began in April of 1989 and continued until September of 1989 for the first year of the response. The response effort continued in 990 and 1991 with cleanup in the summer months, and limited shoreline monitoring in the winter months. Fate and effects monitoring by state and Federal agencies are ongoing. The images that the world saw on television and descriptions they heard on the radio that spring were of heavily oiled shorelines, dead and dying wildlife, and thousands of workers mobilized to clean beaches. These images reflected what many people felt was a severe environmental insult to a relatively pristine, ecol ogically important area that was home to many species of wildlife endangered elsewhere. In the weeks and months that followed, the oil spread over a wide area in Prince William Sound and beyond, resulting in an unprecedented response and cleanup—in fact, the largest oil spill cleanup ever mobilized. Many local, state, federal, and private agencies and groups took part in the effort. Even today, scientists continue to study the affected shorelines to understand how an ecosystem like Prince William Sound responds to, and recovers from, an incident like the Exxon Valdez oil spill. Events leading up to the spill The Exxon Valdez departed from the Trans Alaska Pipeline terminal at 9:12 pm, March 23, 1989. William Murphy, an expert ship’s pilot hired to maneuver the 986-foot vessel through the Valdez Narrows, was in control of the wheelhouse. At his side was the captain of the vessel, Joe Hazelwood. Helmsman Harry Claar was steering. After passing through Valdez Narrows, pilot Murphy left the vessel and Captain Hazelwood took over the wheelhouse. The Exxon Valdez encountered icebergs in the shipping lanes and Captain Hazelwood ordered Claar to take the Exxon Valdez out of the shipping lanes to go around the ice. He then handed over control of the wheelhouse to Third Mate Gregory Cousins with precise instructions to turn back into the shipping lanes when the tanker reached a certain point. At that time, Claar was replaced by Helmsman Robert Kagan. For reasons that remain unclear, Cousins and Kagan failed to make the turn back into the shipping lanes and the ship ran aground on Bligh Reef at 12:04 a. m. , March 24, 1989. Captain Hazelwood was in his quarters at the time. The National Transportation Safety Board investigated the accident and determined five probable causes of the grounding: (1) The third mate failed to properly maneuver the vessel, possibly due to fatigue and excessive workload; (2) the master failed to provide a proper navigation watch, possibly due to impairment from alcohol; (3) Exxon Shipping Company failed to supervise the master and provide a rested and sufficient crew for the Exxon Valdez; (4) the U. S. Coast Guard failed to provide an effective vessel traffic system; and (5) effective pilot and escort services were lacking. The behavior of the oil [pic] [pic] The oil slick (blue areas) eventually extended 470 miles southwest from Bligh Reef. The spill area eventually totaled 11,000 square miles. (Source: Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council) Prudhoe Bay crude oil has an API gravity of 27. 0, and a pour point of 0 degrees Celcius. The bulk of the oil spilled from the Exxon Valdez was released within 6 hours of the ship’s grounding. The general trend of the oil was south and west from the point of origin. For the first few days after the spill, most of the oil was in a large concentrated patch near Bligh Island. On March 26, a storm, which generated winds of over 70 mph in Prince William Sound, weathered much of the oil, changing it into mousse and tarballs, and distributed it over a large area. You read "Exxon Mobil and Environment" in category "Essay examples" By March 30, the oil extended 90 miles from the spill site. Ultimately, from Bligh Reef, the spill stretched 470 miles southwest to the village of Chignik on the Alaska Peninsula. Approximately 1,300 miles of shoreline were oiled. 200 miles were heavily or moderately oiled (obvious impact); 1,100 miles were lightly or very lightly oiled (light sheen or occasional tarballs). The spill region contains more than 9,000 miles of shoreline. In addition to the storm of March 26, the spill occurred at a time of year when the spring tidal fluctuations were nearly 18 feet. This tended to deposit the oil onto shorelines above the normal zone of wave action. The diversity in shoreline types in the affected areas led to varied oiling conditions. In some cases, oil was present on sheer rock faces making access and cleanup difficult, or rocky beaches with grain size anywhere from coarse sand to boulders, where the oil could percolate to a sub-surface level. The spill affected both sheltered and exposed (to high wave/weather action) shorelines. Once oil landed on a shoreline it could be floated off at the next high tide, carried to and deposited in a different location, making the tracking of oil migration and shoreline impact very difficult. This migration ended by mid-summer 1989, and the remaining cleanup dealt with oiled shorelines, rather than oil in the water. Cleanup operations continued during the summer months of 1990 and 1991. By 1990, surface oil, where it existed, had become significantly weathered. Sub-surface oil, on the other hand, was in many cases much less weathered and still in a liquid state. The liquid sub-surface oil could give off a sheen when disturbed. Cleanup in 1991 concentrated on the remaining reduced quantities of surface and sub-surface oil. Countermeasures and Mitigation Control of the oil spill at sea The Alyeska Pipeline Service Company was immediately notified of the incident and sent a tug to the site to assist in stabilizing the vessel. At the time of the incident, the Alyeska spill response barge was out of service being re-outfitted. It arrived on scene by 1500 on 24 March. Alyeska was overwhelmed by the magnitude of the incident; by March 25, Exxon had assumed full responsibility for the spill and cleanup effort. [pic] [pic] The Exxon Valdez surrounded by a containment boom. Source: Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council) Deployment of boom around the vessel was complete within 35 hours of the grounding. Exxon conducted successful dispersant test applications on March 25 and 26 and was granted permission on March 26 to apply dispersants to the oil slick. Due to the large storm that began the evening of March 26, much of the oil turned into mousse. As dispersants aren’t generally able to dissipate oil in the form of mousse, it was no longer practical to use dispersants on floating oil during this response. On the evening of March 25, a test in-situ burn of oil on water was conducted. Approximately 15,000 to 30,000 gallons of oil were collected using 3M Fire Boom towed behind two fishing vessels in a U-shaped configuration, and ignited. The oil burned for a total of 75 minutes and was reduced to approximately 300 gallons of residue that could be collected easily. It was estimated that the efficiency of this test burn was 98 percent or better. Again, continued in-situ burning was not possible because of the change in the oil’s state after the storm of March 26. Five dispersant trials took place between March 25 and March 28, but by March 29 the Regional Response Team (RRT) decided that dispersants were no longer feasible. Because there was not enough equipment to protect all the shorelines that could be impacted, Federal, state and local agencies collaborated to establish shoreline protection priorities. The agencies decided that fish hatcheries and salmon streams had the highest priority; accordingly, containment booms were deployed to protect these areas. Five fish hatcheries in Prince William Sound and two in the Gulf of Alaska were boomed, with the largest amount of boom deployed at the Sawmill Bay hatchery in Prince William Sound. At the height of containment efforts, it is estimated that a total of 100 miles of boom was deployed. Almost all the types of boom available on the market were used and tested during the spill response. Due to the size of the spill, it was necessary to employ inexperienced workers to deploy and tend booms, and this led to some boom being incorrectly used or handled, and sometimes damaged. Some boom sank because of improper deployment, infrequent tending, or leakage and/or inadequacy in the buoyancy system. Other problems included fabric tears in boom due to debris, and tearing at anchorage points from wave action. In some cases, ballast chains were ripped off during boom recovery if the boom was lifted by the chain. One estimate suggests that 50 percent of the damage to larger boom came during boom recovery. For self-inflating booms, it was important to keep the inflation valves above the water during deployment so that the boom did not become filled with water and have to be replaced. Aerial surveillance was used to direct the deployment of booms and skimmers for open water oil recovery. Visual overflight observations as well as ultraviolet/infrared (UV/IR) surveys were used by the USCG and Exxon to track the floating oil. Satellite imagery was also tested as a method to track oil but was not very useful because of the infrequency of satellite passes over Prince William Sound (every 7 to 8 days), cloud cover, and lengthy turn around time for results. The primary means of open water oil recovery was with skimmers. In general, most skimmers became less effective once the oil had spread, emulsified and mixed with debris. To save time, it was most practical to keep skimmer offloading equipment and oil storage barges near the skimmers. The most used skimmers during the response were the Marco sorbent lifting-belt skimmers that were supplied by the U. S. Navy. Once oil became viscous, the sorbent part of the skimmer was removed and the conveyor belt alone was sufficient to pull the oil up the ramp. The pump that came with the skimmer had difficulty offloading viscous oil, so that other vacuum equipment was used to unload the collected oil. The Marco skimmers were generally not used close to shore because they draw between three and four feet. In general, the paddle belt and rope mop skimmers were the most useful for recovery of oil from the shoreline. The skimmers were placed on self-propelled barges with a shallow draft. Sorbents were used to recover oil in cases where mechanical means were less practical. The drawback to sorbents was that they were labor intensive and generated additional solid waste. Sorbent boom was used to collect sheen between primary and secondary layers of offshore boom, and to collect sheen released from the beach during tidal flooding. Pompoms were useful for picking up small amounts of weathered oil. Towing of sorbent boom in a zigzag or circular fashion behind a boat was used to collect oil and was more efficient than towing the boom in a straight line. Sorbent booms made of rolled pads were more effective than booms made of individual particles because these absorbed less water and were stronger, and did not break into many small particles if they came apart. Early on in the response, storage space for recovered oil was in short supply. To combat the storage space problem, water was decanted from skimmers or tanks into a boomed area before offloading. As a result, the remaining viscous oil mixture was difficult to offload, the process sometimes taking up to 6 to 8 hours. High-capacity skimmer offloading pumps, in particular grain pumps, were the most useful in transferring viscous oil. The oil remaining on the Exxon Valdez, was completely offloaded by the end of the first week in April 1989. After offloading operations were completed, the tanker was towed to a location 25 miles from Naked Island in Prince William Sound for temporary repairs. Later in the summer of 1989, the vessel was brought to California for further repairs. Shoreline treatment Shoreline assessment was a prerequisite for the implementation of any beach cleanup. Assessment provided geomorphological, biological, archaeological and oiling information that was used for the development of site specific treatment strategies. Cleanup operations were scheduled around specific activities such as seal haulout activity, seal pupping, eagle nesting, fish spawning, fishing seasons, and other significant events as much as possible. [pic] [pic] Shoreline treatment from the Exxon Valdez spill. (Source: Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council) In 1989, hoses spraying seawater were used to flush oil from shorelines. The released oil was then trapped with offshore boom, and removed using skimmers, vacuum trucks (useful for thick layers of oil) and boom (sorbent, snare, pompoms). For hard to reach areas, or locations with weathered oil, heated seawater was used to flush oil from the shoreline. Converted vessels and barges were used for beach washing operations. It would take several days to outfit a conventional barge with the equipment needed to heat and pump the water. Smaller vessels that were used for beach washing early in the spill were re-outfitted for bioremediation later in the response. Along with the large-scale beach washing, manual cleanup, raking and tilling the beaches, oily debris pickup, enhanced bioremediation and spot washing were used to cleanup the oil. In some locations, oil was thick enough to be picked up with shovels and buckets. In addition, mechanical methods were used on a few sites, including the use of bulldozers to relocate or remove the contaminated beach surfaces. Mechanical rock washing machines, which were manufactured for the spill, were not used to clean contaminated rocks and return them to the beach. Oiled storm berm was mechanically relocated in some cases so that these areas, which normally would not receive much wave action, would be more exposed and cleaned by natural processes. If the oiling in the berm was significant or persistent it was tilled to free the oil or washed to optimize the cleaning. Recommendations were made to restrict the movement of berm to the upper third of the beach to ensure its return to the original location. [pic] [pic] Beach washing. (Source: Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council) Beach applications of dispersants were tried in several locations. Corexit 7664 was applied on Ingot Island, followed by a warm water wash. No significant change in oil cover or the physical state of the oil was observed as a result of the treatment. Some ecological impacts were observed in the treated areas. It appeared that the effects were largely due to the intensive washing more than to the use of Corexit 7664, and were evident in intertidal epibenthic macrobiota. In addition, the dispersant BP1100X was applied to a test area on Knight Island. Toxicology studies indicated that the upper and lower intertidal biota were different from pre-application communities the day after dispersant application, and returned to pre-treatment levels after seven days. In May of 1989, the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and Exxon conducted bioremediation trials at two test sites on Knight Island in Prince William Sound. On the basis of these tests and other trials later in the summer, Exxon recommended the use of the bioremediation enhancement agents, Inipol (Inipol EAP22—manufactured by Elf Aquitaine of France) and Customblen (Customblen 28-8-0 —manufactured by Sierra Chemicals of California), and subsequently treated over 70 miles of shoreline in Prince William Sound with these agents. Winter monitoring of the effects of bioremediation consisted of surveys of more than 20 beaches in Prince William Sound and the Gulf of Alaska. These studies determined that oil degradation had been enhanced on the shorelines monitored, but some debate existed over whether bioremediation was solely, or even largely, responsible. Cleanup operations in 1989 ceased by the end of September. All parties involved in the response agreed that continuation of cleanup into the Alaskan winter would jeopardize the safety of cleanup crews. In addition, it was speculated that the winter storms in Alaska could significantly remove oil from shorelines, including sub-surface oil. By the end of the 1989 cleanup, more than 25,000 tons of oiled waste and several hundred thousand barrels of oil/liquid waste were collected and disposed of in landfills. Cleanup in 1990 began in April and ended in September. Surveys in the spring of 1990 showed that oiling conditions had been reduced or changed over the winter. Surface oil in 1990 was significantly weathered but sub-surface oil was relatively fresh in some locations. Cleanup techniques in 1990 focused more on manual methods of treatment such as hand wiping and spot washing as well as bioremediation. Mechanical equipment was used on a few sites. Bioremediation was more extensive in 1990, with 378 of the 587 shoreline segments treated that year receiving bioremediation application. In general, Inipol was applied in cases where surface oiling existed and Customblen slow release pellets were preferred for treating beaches with sub-surface oiling. Generally, beaches were given one to three treatments over several months. Concern over the possible toxicity of Inipol led to recommendations for application of only Customblen on some sites. By the spring of 1991, the scope of the cleanup effort was greatly reduced. Manual cleanup, bioremediation, and very limited use of mechanical equipment were employed. Cleanup took place from May of 1991 through July of 1991. An important observation that resulted from the Exxon Valdez oil spill was that natural cleaning processes, on both sheltered and exposed beaches, were in many cases very effective at degrading oil. It took longer for some sections of shoreline to recover from some of the invasive cleaning methods (hot water flushing in particular) than from the oiling itself. Economic impacts The State of Alaska funded a several studies of the short term economic impact of the Exxon Valdez oil spill. [pic] [pic] Recreational fishing in Alaska. (Source: Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council) 1. Recreational Sport Fishing Losses. This loss was estimated based on the impacts of the spill on sport fishing activity. One must consider the impact on the number of anglers, the number of sport fishing trips, the areas fished, the species fished for, and the length of these trips. For 1989 the loss was estimated to be between $0 and $580 million dollars; for 1990 the range was $3. 6 million $50. 5 million dollars. 2. Tourism Losses. The spill caused both negative and positive effects. The major negative effects were: 1. Decreased resident and non-resident vacation/pleasure visitor traffic in the spill-affected areas due to lack of available visitor services (accommodations, charter boats, air taxis). 2. Severe labor shortage in the visitor industry throughout the state due to traditional service industry workers seeking high-paying spill clean-up jobs. 3. Fifty-nine percent of businesses in the most affected areas reported spill-related cancellations and 16% reported business was less than expected due to the spill. The principle positive impact was strong spill-related business in some areas and in certain businesses such as hotels, taxis, car/RV rentals and boat charters. 1. Existence value. Economists tried to estimate the damage to so-called non-use or existence value of the Prince William Sound region in the wake of the spill. This is an attempt top measure what cannot be observed in the market: the value to the public of a pristine Prince William Sound. They estimated existence value using contingent valuation, a survey approach designed to create the missing market for public goods by determining what people would be willing to pay (WTP) for specified changes in the quantity or quality of such goods or, more rarely, what they would be willing to accept (WTA) in compensation for well-specified degradations in the provision of these goods. The results suggest an aggrragete loss of $4. 9 to $7. 2 billion dollars. In effect, these amounts reflect the public’s willingness to pay to prevent another Exxon Valdez type oil spill given the scenario posed. . Replacement costs of birds and mammals. These costs include the relocation, replacement and rehabilitation for some of the shorebirds, seabirds and the marine and terrestrial mammals that may have suffered injury or were destroyed in the Exxon Valdez oil spill. The values range from $20,000 to $300,000 dollars per marine mammal (sea otters, whales, seal lions, seals), $125 to $500 dollars per terrestrial animal (bears, river otters, mink, deer), and $170 to $6,000 dollars for seabirds and eagles. How much oil remains? Based on the areas that were studied in the aftermath of the spill, scientists made estimates of the ultimate fate of the oil. A 2001 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) study surveyed 96 sites along 8,000 miles of coastline. [pic] [pic] A pit dug on a Prince William Sound beach in 2001 revealing oil in the sediments. (Source: NOAA) The survey distinguished between surface and buried oil. Buried or subsurface oil is of greater concern than surface oil. Subsurface oil can remain dormant for many years before being dispersed and is more liquid, still toxic, and may become biologically available. A disturbance event such as burrowing animals or a severe storm reworks the beach and can reintroduce unweathered oil into the water. Results of the summer shoreline survey showed that the oil remaining on the surface of beaches in Prince William Sound is weathered and mostly hardened into an asphalt-like layer. The toxic components of this type of surface oil are not as readily available to biota, although some softer forms do cause sheens in tide pools. The survey indicates a total area of approximately 20 acres of shoreline in Prince William Sound are still contaminated with oil. Oil was found at 58 percent of the 91 sites assessed and is estimated to have the linear equivalent of 5. 8 km of contaminated shoreline. In addition to the estimated area of remaining oiled beach, several other important points were evident: 1. Surface oil was determined to be not a good indicator of subsurface oil. 2. Twenty subsurface pits were classified as heavily oiled. Oil saturated all of the interstitial spaces and was extremely repugnant. These â€Å"worst case† pits exhibited an oil mixture that resembled oil encountered in 1989 a few weeks after the spill—highly odiferous, lightly weathered, and very fluid. 3. Subsurface oil was also found at a lower tide height than expected (between 0 and 6 feet), in contrast to the surface oil, which was found mostly at the highest levels of the beach. This is significant, because the pits with the most oil were found low in the intertidal zone, closest to the zone of biological production, and indicate that the survey estimates are conservative at best. Ecosystem response to the spill Recovery is a very difficult term to define and measure for a complex ecosystem such as Prince William Sound. If you ask a fisherman from Kodiak Island, a villager from the town of Valdez, an Exxon engineer, or a NOAA iologist, you are likely to receive such different answers that you may wonder if they heard the same question. In particular, disagreements exist between Exxon and government-funded scientists, and unknowns persist, especially in understanding how multiple processes combine to drive observed dynamics. Despite this, there are some things known with a high de gree of certainty: oil persisted beyond a decade in surprising amounts and in toxic forms, was sufficiently bioavailable to induce chronic biological exposures, and had long-term impacts at the population level. Three major pathways of long-term impacts emerge: (1) chronic persistence of oil, biological exposures, and population impacts to species closely associated with shallow sediments; (2) delayed population impacts of sublethal doses compromising health, growth, and reproduction; and (3) indirect effects of trophic and interaction cascades, all of which transmit impacts well beyond the acute-phase mortality. Acute Mortality [pic] [pic] Sea birds killed by the Exxon Valdez oil spill. (Source: NOAA) Marine mammals and seabirds are at great risk from floating oil because they have routine contact with the sea surface. Oiling of fur or feathers causes loss of insulating capacity and can lead to death from hypothermia, smothering, drowning, and ingestion of toxic hydrocabons. Scientists estimate mass mortalities of 1000 to 2800 sea otters, 302 harbor seals, and unprecedented numbers of seabird deaths estimated at 250,000 in the days immediately after the oil spill. Mass mortality also occurred among macroalgae and benthic invertebrates on oiled shores from a combination of chemical toxicity, smothering, and physical displacement from the habitat by pressurized wash-water applied after the spill. Long-term impacts The persistent nature of oil in sediments produce chronic, long-term exposure risks from some species. For example, chronic exposures for years after the spill to oil persisting in sedimentary refuges were evident from biomarkers in fish, sea otters, and seaducks intimately associated with sediments for egg laying or foraging. These chronic exposures enhanced mortality for years. Indirect effects can be as important as direct exposure. Cascading indirect effects are delayed in operation because they are mediated through changes in an intermediary. Perhaps the two generally most influential types of indirect interactions are: (1) trophic cascades in which predators reduce abundance of their prey, which in turn releases the prey’s food species from control; and (2) provision of biogenic habitat by organisms that serve as or create important physical structure in the environment. [pic] [pic] A healthy stand of rockweed (Fucus gardneri) growing on a boulder in Prince William Sound. Source: NOAA) Scientists have found that indirect interactions lengthened the recovery process on rocky shorelines for a decade or more. Dramatic initial loss of cover by the most important biogenic habitat provider, the rockweed Fucus gardneri, triggered a cascade of indirect impacts. Freeing of space on the rocks and the losses of important grazing (limpets and periwinkles) and predatory (whelks) gastropods combined to promote initi al blooms of ephemeral green algae in 1989 and 1990 and an opportunistic barnacle, Chthamalus dalli, in 1991. Absence of structural algal canopy led to declines in associated invertebrates and inhibited recovery of Fucus itself, whose recruits avoid desiccation under the protective cover of the adult plants. Those Fucus plants that subsequently settled on tests of Chthamalus dalli became dislodged during storms because of the structural instability of the attachment of this opportunistic barnacle. After apparent recovery of Fucus, previously oiled shores exhibited another mass rockweed mortality in 1994, a cyclic instability probably caused by simultaneous senility of a single-aged stand. The importance of indirect interactions in rocky shore communities is well established, and the general sequence of succession on rocky intertidal shores extending over a decade after the Exxon Valdez oil spill closely resembles the dynamics after the Torrey Canyon oil spill in the UK. State of recovery The Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council published a study in 2004 to assess the state of the resources injured by the spill. Fifteen years after the Exxon Valdez oil spill, it is clear that some fish and wildlife species injured by the spill have not fully recovered. It is less clear, however, what role oil plays in the inability of some populations to bounce back. An ecosystem is dynamic — ever changing — and continues its natural cycles and fluctuations at the same time that it struggles with the impacts of spilled oil. As time passes, separating natural change from oil-spill impacts becomes more and more difficult. The Trustee Council recognizes 30 resources or species as injured by the spill. Depending on their status as of 2002, these have been placed in one of five categories: Not Recovering These resources are showing little or no clear improvement since spill injuries occurred: Common loon Cormorants (3 species), Harbor seal, Harlequin duck, Pacific herring, Pigeon guillemot Recovery unknown Limited data on life history or extent of injury is available. Current research is either inconclusive or not complete: Cutthroat trout, Dolly Varden, Kittlitz’s murrelet, Rockfish Subtidal communities [pic] [pic] Sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka). (Source: NOAA) Recovered Recovery objectives have been met: Archaeological resources, Bald eagle, Black oystercatcher, Common murre, Pink salmon, River otter, Sockeye salmon Recovering Clams, Wilderness Areas, Intertidal communities, Killer whale (AB pod), Marbled murrelet, Mussels, Sea otter, Sediments Human uses Human services that depend on natural resources were also injured by the spill. These services are each categorized as â€Å"recovering† until the resources they depend on are fully recovered: Commercial fishing, Passive use, Recreation and tourism, Subsistence Prior to the Exxon Valdez oil spill, there was no baseline date available for the abundant number of species existing in Prince William Sound. Because of this lack of data, numbers of oil spill-related casualties and recovery rates have been difficult to determine. Legal responsibility of ExxonMobil The settlement among the State of Alaska, the U. S. government and Exxon was approved by the U. S. District Court on Oct. 9, 1991. It resolved various criminal charges against Exxon as well as civil claims brought by the federal and state governments for recovery of natural resource damages resulting from the oil spill. The settlement was comprised of criminal and civil settlements with Exxon, as well as a civil settlement with Alyeska Pipeline Service Company. Criminal Settlement Plea Agreement Exxon was fined $150 million, the largest fine ever imposed for an environmental crime. The court forgave $125 million of that fine in recognition of Exxon’s cooperation in cleaning up the spill and paying certain private claims. Of the remaining $25 million, $12 million went to the North American Wetlands Conservation Fund and $13 million went to the national Victims of Crime Fund. Criminal Restitution As restitution for the injuries caused to the fish, wildlife, and lands of the spill region, Exxon agreed to pay $100 million. This money was divided evenly between the federal and state governments. Civil Settlement Exxon agreed to pay $900 million in ten annual installments. The final payment was received in Sept. 2001. The settlement contains a â€Å"reopener window† between Sept. 1, 2002 and Sept. 1, 2006, during which the state and federal governments may make a claim for up to an additional $100 million. The funds must be used to restore resources that suffered a substantial loss or decline as a result of the oil spill, the injuries to which could not have been known or anticipated by the six trustees from any information in their possession or reasonably available to any of them at the time of the settlement (Sept. 25, 1991). The response of ExxonMobil [pic] [pic] Exxon logo. ExxonMobil acknowledged that the Exxon Valdez oil spill was a tragic accident that the company deeply regrets. Exxon notes that company took immediate responsibility for the spill, cleaned it up, and voluntarily compensated those who claimed direct damages. ExxonMobil paid $300 million immediately and voluntarily to more than 11,000 Alaskans and businesses affected by the Valdez spill. In addition, the company paid $2. 2 billion on the cleanup of Prince William Sound, staying with the cleanup from 1989 to 1992, when the State of Alaska and the U. S. Coast Guard declared the cleanup complete. And, as noted above, ExxonMobil also has paid $1 billion in settlements with the state and federal governments. That money is being used for environmental studies and conservation programs for Prince William Sound. ExxonMobil hired its own scientists to study the impacts of the spill, and they come to different conclusions than many of the results published by government agencies and peer-reviewed academic journals. Exxon’s scientists acknowledge the lingering pockets of oil in the sediments, but they argue that they do not pose a serious risk. It is their position that that there are now no species in Prince William Sound in trouble due to the impact of the 1989 oil spill, and that the data strongly support the position of a fully recovered Prince William Sound ecosystem. Lessons learned from the spill The scientists who monitored the oiled parts of Prince William Sound wanted to study the shoreline’s ecological recovery after an environmental disaster like the Exxon Valdez spill, and then use those lessons to better respond to future oil spills. Right now, their task is still incomplete. However, some of their findings have changed the way they think about cleaning up oil spills, and about how ecosystems respond to such disturbances. Following are some examples of what they have learned: 1. Clean-up attempts can be more damaging than the oil itself, with impacts recurring as long as clean-up (including both chemical and physical methods) continues. Because of the pervasiveness of strong biological interactions in rocky intertidal and kelp forest communities, cascades of delayed, indirect impacts (especially of trophic cascades and biogenic habitat loss) expand the scope of injury well beyond the initial direct losses and thereby also delay recoveries. 2. Oil that penetrates deeply into beaches can remain relatively fresh for years and can later come back to the surface and affect nearby animals. In addition, oil degrades at varying rates depending on environment, with subsurface sediments physically protected from disturbance, oxygenation, and photolysis retaining contamination by only partially weathered oil for years. 3. Rocky rubble shores should be of high priority for protection and cleanup because oil tends to penetrate deep and weather very slowly in these habitats, prolonging the harmful effects of the oil when it leaches out. . Oil effects to sea birds and mammals also are substantial (independent of means of insulation) over the long-term through interactions between natural environmental stressors and compromised health of exposed animals, through chronic toxic exposure from ingesting contaminated prey or during foraging around persistent sedimentary pools of oil, and through disruption of vital social functions (caregivin g or reproduction) in socially organized species. 5. Long-term exposure of fish embryos to weathered oil at parts per billion (ppb) concentrations has population consequences through indirect effects on growth, deformities, and behavior with long-term consequences on mortality and reproduction. The Exxon Valdez also triggered major improvements in oil spill prevention and response planning. 1. The U. S. Coast Guard now monitors fully-laden tankers via satellite as they pass through Valdez Narrows, cruise by Bligh Island, and exit Prince William Sound at Hinchinbrook Entrance. In 1989, the Coast Guard watched the tankers only through Valdez Narrows and Valdez Arm. . Two escort vessels accompany each tanker while passing through the entire Sound. They not only watch over the tankers, but are capable of assisting them in the event of an emergency, such as a loss of power or loss of rudder control. Fifteen years ago, there was only one escort vessel through Valdez Narrows. 3. Specially trained marine pilots, with considerable experience in Prince William Sound, board tankers from their new pilot station at Bligh Reef and are aboard the ship for 25 miles out of the 70-mile transit through the Sound. Weather criteria for safe navigation are firmly established. 4. Congress enacted legislation requiring that all tankers in Prince William Sound be double-hulled by the year 2015. It is estimated that if the Exxon Valdez had had a double-hull structure, the amount of the spill would have been reduced by more than half. There are presently three double-hulled and twelve double-bottomed tankers moving oil through Prince William Sound. Two more Endeavor class tankers are under construction by ConocoPhillips, their expected induction into service is 2004 and 2005. . Contingency planning for oil spills in Prince William Sound must now include a scenario for a spill of 12. 6 million gallons. Drills are held in the Sound each year. 6. The combined ability of skimming systems to remove oil from the water is now 10 times greater than it was in 1989, with equipment in place capable of recovering over 300,000 barrels of oil in 72 hours. 7. Even if oil could have been skimmed up in 1989, there wa s no place to put the oil-water mix. Today, seven barges are available with a capacity to hold 818,000 barrels of recovered oil. . There are now 40 miles of containment boom in Prince William Sound, seven times the amount available at the time of the Exxon Valdez spill. 9. Dispersants are now stockpiled for use and systems are in place to apply them from helicopters, airplanes, and boats. Further Reading †¢ Alaska Fisheries Science Center, NOAA. The Exxon Valdez Oil Spill: How Much Oil Remains? †¢ Alaska Oil Spill Commission. 1990. Spill, the wreck of the Exxon Valdez: implications for safe transportation of oil (Final report). Juneau, AK. †¢ National Transportation Safety Board. 1990. Marine Accident Report: Grounding of the U. S. Tankship Exxon Valdez: on Bligh Reef, Prince William Sound, near Valdez, Alaska, March 24, 1989. Washington, D. C. : NTSB. NTSB/MAR-90/04. 255 p. †¢ Peterson, Charles H. , Stanley D. Rice, Jeffrey W. Short, Daniel Esler, James L. Bodkin, Brenda E. Ballachey, David B. Irons. 2003. Long-Term Ecosystem Response to the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill. Science 302: 2082-2086. |Disclaimer: This article is taken wholly from, or contains information that was originally published by, the | |National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Topic editors and authors for the Encyclopedia of Earth may have | |edited its content or added new information. The use of information from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric | |Administration should not be construed as support for or endorsement by that organization for any new information | |added by EoE personnel, or for any editing of the original content. | Citation Cleveland, Cutler (Contributing Author); National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (Content source); Peter Saundry (Topic Editor). 2008. Exxon Valdez oil spill. † In: Encyclopedia of Earth. Eds. Cutler J. Cleveland (Washington, D. C. : Environmental Information Coalition, National Council for Science and the Environment). [First published in the Encyclopedia of Earth August 17, 2006; Last revised August 26, 2008; Retrieved March 28, 2010]. Editing this Article We invite all scientists, environmental professionals and science attentive individuals to help improve this article and the EoE by clicking her e EDIT CITE EMAIL PRINT NCSE Boston University M1 Digital Universe Unless otherwise noted, all text is available under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike license. Privacy Policy | Terms of Use | Neutrality Policy Supported by the Environmental Information Coalition and the National Council for Science and the Environment. Unless otherwise noted, all text is available under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike license. Please see the Encyclopedia of Earth’s website for Terms of Use information. Supported by the Environmental Information Coalition and the National Council for Science and the Environment. [pic][pic] How to cite Exxon Mobil and Environment, Essay examples

Larkins Poetry Is Predominantly Pessimistic free essay sample

How far do you agree? Larkins writing is largely pessimistic because of his inability to accept change throughout the era of his writing, he’s bitter character largely reflects personas in his poems for example Mr. Bleaney, whilst in others he prefers to mock those who lead alternative lifestyles to his own. Although his writing has a heavily pessimistic style to it, more of his character make-up is revealed. I feel we can see more clearly Larkins emotional un-clarity with the idea of being alone. It is this obscured view of reality that raises the question as to the sureness of his pessimism. Whilst I don’t doubt Larkins hatred for women, marriage and consumerism I question the reasons why. Larkin shows his pessimism by revealing his outsider position in society. In Dockery and Son the repition of â€Å"No son, no wife, no house† states the external expectation of society, however the persona contrasts what he actually wants by the absence of all these things being â€Å"natural† to him. Despite this the use of â€Å"quite† doesn’t fully convince the reader that he accepts his outsider status. It could be said that Larkin has not so much an aspiration, but a fascination for the norm. Similarly there is a feeling of distance in Here as Larkin describes the â€Å"Frinton folk† who â€Å"Put him up† for the summer. The use of fricative is showing an immediate lack of intimacy as the literary device uses harsh, sharp words. The vague description of â€Å"Folk† further confirms his lack of desire for family. Larkins clever use of words â€Å"put him up† have connotations of the family having to put up with him. Larkins decision to have the family reciprocating that lack of compassion could have more personal implications of the fear of being rejected, should he choose to attempt to begin a relationship. Likewise in Dockery and Son Larkin places a statement â€Å"I catch my train† next to a negative verb â€Å"ignored. † This displays how this seemingly normal task is overthought as there is no expectation to be acknowledged on a train. Larkin shows a level of possessiveness at the thought of being alone despite never openly admitting it. In addition Larkin presents his pessimism by taking the beauty out of everything. In Mr. Bleaney Larkin writes, â€Å"flowered curtains, thin and frayed† he juxtaposes these two phrases to emphasize the clear difference in description. I feel here Larkin is reflecting situations in reality by giving the reader a positive image and immediately contradicts that statement with the following line. Here Larkin mocks the reader for feeling a sense of optimism, this is an intentional warning as Larkin suggests optimism is not imminent in reality. Also in Dockery and Son Larkin associates clouds with being â€Å"thick and close† the decision to describe clouds in this way is impacting as it goes against out usual expectations. While this reflects Larkins choice to live to opposite way to majority of society it could also refer to the oppressive nature of the population. Larkins use of fricative in Mr. Bleaney when describing the â€Å"Frigid wind† and â€Å"Fusty bed† first gives the reader an insight into Larkins forbidding and unsympathetic personality. However whilst this is obviously the case there are implications of a lack of sexual use for the bed, hence the â€Å"fusty† description. In addition whilst we normally associate a bed with relaxation, luxury and intimacy Larkin simply uses the word â€Å"bed† as id he has none of these familiar feelings. However the fact that he has mentioned a bed more than once highly suggests this lack of sexual intimacy is not fully accepted by Larkin, one could even say he is disturbed by this deprivation. Once again Larkin goes against our associations to the colour red. By placing it in a list it reduces the significance of a colour we associate with love and romance. I feel the use of the colour red was a conscious one by Larkin as he again trys to reduce people’s aspirations, only this time it’s towards love. Here I think Larkin is showing his pessimism by antagonising the audience by taunting them, know most readers with own commercialised items, such as â€Å"red kitchen ware† However in the last stanza oh Here Larkin uses sibilance to describe an â€Å"Unfenced existence, facing the sun† which seems fairly optimistic despite being slightly ambiguous as to the location, its unclear weather its reality or fantasy, which closely mirrors Larkins conflict between pessimism and optimism. Finally Larkin frequently mocks other people in his writing possibly to assure himself of his views. For example in Here Larkins use of harsh sounding syllables â€Å"Grim head-scarfed wives† is accentuating his pessimism. Men often associate the female form with beauty and here Larkin defies this completely. It raises the question as to weather or not Larkin is so anti-family simply because he can’t sustain a relationship for long enough. This would coincide with the mocking stance he takes on when writing Mr. Bleaney. The onomatopoeic use of â€Å"Jabbering† confirms Mr. Bleaneys desire to be alone by the belittling of a large part of society. Whilst this may seem bleak to the reader, company seems to be irritating to Mr. Bleaney. This is interesting as some people would argue that in Mr. Bleaney Larkin is trying to create a meaning for himself. However I disagree and believe Larkin creates a bleak existence for Mr. Bleaney as he â€Å"Stayed in the whole time† to reflect his own life. Here Larkin is making a statement to the reader by acknowledging the fact that he is isolated.